Samarske stijene EarthCache

Bijele i Samarske stijene ubrajaju se u jedinstven geomorfološki fenomen krasa, nalaze se u središnjem dijelu Velike Kapele u Primorskoj-goranskoj i Karlovačkoj županiji. Tu se priroda u pravom smislu razigrala, stvarajući najnevjerojatnije i fantastične forme kamena, nadmašujući u detaljima i djela ljudskih ruku. Velika Kapela u čijem sklopu se nalaze Bijele i Samarske stijene ne predstavlja jedinstven planinski lanac, već se sastoji iz niza manjih i većih, katkad poredanih, katkad razbacanih grebena. Ovu morfologiju uvjetovale su tektonske sile u doba nabiranja (oligomiocen) te podloga izgrađena od vapnenca i dolomita, koji stvaraju specifičan reljef krša. 

ŠTO JE KRŠ?

Krš je skup reljefnih oblika koji su produkti kemijskog trošenja (korozije) stijena topivih u vodi (karbonatne stijene, gips, kamena sol) tj. spektar reljefnih oblika razvijenih u karbonatnim formacijama koje najčešće čine kalcijev (CaCO3) i magnezijev (MgCO3) karbonat.

Obzirom na takav kemijski sastav karbonatne stijene se nazivaju vapnenci i dolomiti, a njihovo svojstvo topivosti u vodi omogućuje stvaranje krša.

Krš je dakle općeniti naziv za skup morfoloških, hidroloških i hidrogeoloških značajki terena koji su izgrađeni od stijena topivih u vodi.

Glavnu ulogu u oblikovanju krškog reljefa imaju kemijski procesi. Dakako da se tu još uključuju tektonika i mehanički procesi, ali bez kemijskih procesa ne bismo govorili o krškome reljefu. Krški je reljef rezultat kemijskoga trošenja stijena Najvažniji uvjet za odvijanje procesa okršavanja jest topivost karbonatnih stijena u vodi. Te stijene doduše izgledaju vrlo čvrsto i otporno, ali voda ih nagriza. To se nagrizanje (kemijsko trošenje, korozija) ne događa na očigled, nego tijekom dugog niza godina.

Zbog korozije u kršu ima vrlo mnogo šupljina. Prošupljenost je jedno od glavnih obilježja stijena krških prostora. Tako nastaju brojne spilje, jame i drugi oblici.

Osnovno obilježje krškog reljefa je selektivna topivost stijena u vodama koje sadrže karbonatnu kiselinu. Ta se topivost ne ostvaruje trenutno, nego kroz dugi niz godina, a propusnost nije poput one koju imaju spužvaste tvari (karbonati nisu mekani), nego nagrizanjem nastaju pukotine zbog kojih stijena više ne može zadržavati vodu.

Posljedica toga je nastajanje izrazito razvijenog reljefa s mnogo udubina i uzvisinama. Općenito se reljefne promjene karbonatnih stijenskih masa dijele na površinske i podzemne.

Glavni površinski krški oblici su: škrape, ponikve, kamenice, doline, uvale i polja. Osnovni podzemni krški oblici su: špilje, jame, ponori i kaverne.

Čvrste stijene kalcijevog karbonata ili vapnenca se često pojavljuju na površini kao kamenito tlo, a kada je vapnenac pokriven glinovitim tlom razvija se krš s različitim oblicima vegetacije. 

Trodimenzionalna priroda krškog krajolika se može podijeliti u tri dijela: 1-egzokrš, 2-epikrš i 3-endokrš.

Egzokrš obuhvaća krške pojave koje se nalaze na površini krškog krajolika, u rasponu od malih pojava do velikih (npr. od škrapa do vrtača do polja). Epikrš je zona otvora i pukotina koje se šire od površine (od egzokrša) u dubinu i do 10-30 metara ispod površine prema endokršu. Endokrš obuhvaća sve dublje komponente podzemnog krškog krajolika, uključujući najmanje otvore, špiljski ukrasi, špiljski sedimenti i špiljski prolazi. Zona epikrša ima ključnu ulogu u krškom sustavu, jer omogućava redoviti protok vode, zraka i ostalih materijala (sedimenata, organskih ostataka i hranjivih tvari) sa površine u podzemlje.

RELJEFNI OBLICI U KRŠU

Površinski krški oblici 

Škrape – žljebovi oštrih bridova nastali korozijskim djelovanjem oborinskih vodaVrlo očigledan rezultat nagrizanja karbonatne stijene od strane vode su škrape. One su žljebovi nastali tečenjem kišnice i sniježnice (vode nastale otapanjem snijega) po stijeni. Mogu biti i podzemne škrape.

Kamenice – plitka udubljenja koja nastaju korozijom na uravnjenom vapnencu
Voda može otapati (nagrizati) karbonatnu stijenu i dok stoji na njoj u obliku lokve. Često ovdje još trune lišće što pojačava nagrizanje (koroziju). Taka nastaje kamenica – široko i plitko udubljenje u okršenoj stijeni.

Ponikve ili vrtače – ljevkasta udubljenja na čijem dnu se nalazi plodna crvenica ( kvalitetno, obradivo tlo )

Ponikve su ovalna udubljenja sa strmim stranama, nastala korozivnim djelovanjem poniruće vode u tektonski razlomljenim zonama. Širina i dubina vrtača može iznositi od nekoliko do stotinu metara. Prema dnu se sužavaju. 

Krška polja i zaravni

Polja su najveći krški oblici. Najčešće su to veće zatvorene depresije unutar krškog terena, dugačke i više kilometara. Nastala su spajanjem rasjeda te bočnim korozivnim djelovanjem vode koja dolazi iz nepropusnih u propusne dijelove tla te nestaje u ponorima. Dulja os polja se obično pruža paralelno pravcima glavnih tektonskih jedinica. Obilježena su rasjedima, zaravnima, kvartarnim i/ili neogenskim sedimentima i naravno u kojima nestaju ponornice. Količina tvari biogenog porijekla u tlu pogoduje brzom bočnom korozijskom djelovanju, a kada otporniji dijelovi zaostaju u obliku kupastih uzvišenja nastaje takozvani kupasti krš.

Razlikuju se tri osnovna tipa polja: rubno (border), strukturno (structural) i temeljno (baselevel). 

Podzemni krški oblici 

Jame - podzemne šupljine koje su razvijene u okomitom pravcu (45°- 90°)

Jame su otvorenim dijelom u izravnom kontaktu s površinom. Pružaju se pod kutom većim od 45° u podzemlje. Kao vertikalni kanali spuštaju se duboko u stijenski masiv pa predstavljaju najmoćniji kontaktni sustav kroz koji voda prodire u krško podzemlje. 

Špilje - podzemne šupljine koje su razvijene u vodoravnom pravcu (do 45° ), bogate su spiljskim ukrasima

Špilje (ili pećine) su također otvorenim dijelom u izravnom kontaktu spojene s površinom, ali se pružaju vodoravno u podzemlje (manje 45°). Vrlo vjerojatno nastaju cirkulacijom vode ispod razine podzemne vode.

Špilje karakteriziraju različite vrste taloga od kojih su najzanimljivije sige, koje su značajne zbog istraživanja klimatskih promjena u geološkoj prošlosti. Upravo sige nastaju procesom suprotnim otapanju, odnosno taloženjem.

Kaverne – zatvorene šupljine krškog podzemlja

Kaverne su podzemni krški oblici koji nemaju kontakt s površinom, a mogu također biti izuzetno velikih dimenzija. U Hrvatskoj je registrirano preko 850 kaverni (2006).

TROŠENJE

Postoje dvije vrste egzogenih procesa, a to su trošenje i erozija.

Trošenje je slamanje stijena, tla i minerala u dodiru s atmosferom, vodom i organizmima. Trošenje se događa na licu mjesta i ne uključuje kretanje, te se na taj način razlikuje od erozije koja uključuje premještanje stijena i minerala.

Tri su različite vrste trošenja: fizičko, kemijsko i biološko trošenje.

Fizičko trošenje

Fizičko trošenje, koje se naziva i mehaničko trošenje, je proces koji uzrokuje raspadanje stijena bez kemijske promjene. Primarni proces u fizičkom trošenja je abrazija, proces kojim smanjuje veličina stijena i minerala. Kemijsko i fizičko trošenje često se odvija istodobno. Fizičko trošenje se može dogoditi zbog temperature, tlaka, mraza itd.

Kemijsko trošenje

Kemijsko trošenje mijenja sastav stijena. Kemijsko trošenje je postupan i stalan proces. Novi ili sekundarni minerali razvijaju se iz originalnih minerala u stijeni. U tome su procesi oksidacije i hidrolize najvažniji. Kemijsko trošenje je pojačano kod u slučaju prisutnosti vode i dušika.

Biološko trošenje.

Neke biljke i životinje mogu uzrokovati kemijsko trošenje kroz oslobađanje kiselih spojeva. Mineralna trošenja mogu pokrenuti i / ili ubrzati mikroorganizmi u tlu. Na primjer, lišajevi na stijenama povećaju stopu kemijskog trošenja.

Zanimljiva je i pojava diferencijalnog trošenja. To je bilo koji oblik trošenja stijena kod kojega je prisutna razlika u stopi trošenja. Do različite stope trošenja dolazi zbog razlika u sastavu i otpornosti stijena koje su izložene trošenju. Manje otporni dijelovi stijena se troše više i brže, dok se otporniji dijelovi troše manje i sporije.

Nakon što su stijene oslabljene trošenjem dolazi do erozije. Erozija je proces kojim se stijene i sedimenti prirodnim putem prenose s jednog mjesta na drugo. Do erozije može doći pod utjecajem leda, vode, vjetra, gravitacije.

PRIRODNI LUKOVI ILI MOSTOVI

Prirodni lukovi ili mostovi su mostovi ili tupe probijene formacije stijena koje su nastale erozijom. Ovisno o veličini, obliku, nastajanju i okruženju imaju drugačije nazive kao kameni most, kameni luk, prirodni most ili obalna vrata. Otvor je okružen stijenama, debljina probijene kamene formacije je otprilike iste veličine kao i širina i visina. Ove erozijske oblike možemo naći u različitim veličinama od rupe veličine palca do otvora veličine više stotina metara.

U engleskom jeziku se takvi erozijski oblici nazivaju Natural Arch ili Natural Bridge. Prema podjeli Natural Arch and Bridge Society nastaje Natural Arch (prirodni svod) bez utjecaja tekuće vode. Takvi oblici su česti na zapadu SAD-a gdje su oblikovani uglavnom od pješčenjaka. Natural Bridge (prirodni most) nastaje pod utjecajem tekuće vode i u mnogim slučajevima protječe stalno ili povremeno potok ili rijeka. Daljnja pod podjela ove glavne grupe može biti prema oblicima ili prema nastajanju.

Erozijski oblici mogu nastati u svim vrstama stijena. Kratkog su vijeka na direktno erodirajućim stijenama ili okruženju sa visokom erozijskom energijom, kao što su obalne zone sa strmim hridima. Trajni veliki oblici često nastaju u pješčenjaku i vapnencu, pošto su to otporne stijene osjetljive na otapanje vodom i trošenje.

Prirodni luk nastaje samo pod posebnim uvjetima. Svaki proces je relevantan za formiranje prirodnog luka što uključuje djelovanje vode, gravitacija, promjene temperature ili tektonski pritisci na stijenu. Vjetar nije značajan čimbenik u oblikovanju prirodnog luka, on samo djeluje kako bi raščistio rastresita zrna I time doveo do mikroskopske erozije. Pješčane oluje mogu izribati ili izpolirat već postojeće lukova.

Prirodni lukovi ili mostovi mogu nastati:

1. Erozijom

2. Raspadanjem stijena, te se nakon pada oslanjaju jedne na druge

3. Mehaničkom erozijom (vodeni tok):

Da bi mogli logirat Earthcache postavit ću Vam nekoliko pitanja (s obzirom da je ovo D5 treba se odgovorit na pitanja sa svih stageva, te trebaju biti što točniji ili log neće biti priznat), a Vi mi pošaljite odgovore na mail, ne morate čekat moj odgovor već slobodno logirajte, ako nešto nije u redu kontaktirat ću Vas.

1. Stage 1 - Što vidite ispred sebe? Objasnite kako je nastalo? 

2. Stage 2 - Morate se popet na vrh Stepenice i pronađite jedan od krških oblika - koji je to? Objasnite svojim riječima kako nastaje! Koje je veličine?

3. Stage 3 - Kad dođete na lokaciju promotrite površinu stijene s lijeve strane i objasnite koji je to tip egzogenog procesa, opišite strukturu i boju.

4. Stage 4 - Opišite što vidite na lokaciji o kojem krškom obliku je riječ? Dali vidite dno? Pripada li to egzokršu, epikršu ili endokršu?

5. Stage 5 - Staza vas ovdje vodi oko kojeg krškog oblika? Objasnite u koji krški krajolik on spada? Zašto?

6. Stage 6 - Promotrite mjesto i recite koji je to krški oblik? Procjenite njegovu visinu, te gdje ga sve možete vidjet? Objasnite svojim riječima kako nastaje.

7. Stage 7 - Na ovom mjestu vidjet ćete na "podu" nešto neobično, što je to? Objasnite kako mislite da je nastalo i u koji krški krajolik spada - je li to egzokrš, epikrš ili endokrš? Kao na kojem stage-u još možeš vidjet ovaj krški oblik?

8. Stage 8 - Promotrite lokaciju - opišite što vidite ispred sebe? Procjenite veličinu? U koji krški krajolik spada - je li to egzokrš, epikrš ili endokrš? Što vidite u sredini?

9. Stage 9 - Na istočnoj strani vidjet ćete jedan krški oblik o kojem je riječ? Pripada li to egzokršu, epikršu ili endokršu? Zašto?

10. Stage 10 - Ispod čega prolazite na ovoj lokaciji? Objasnite svojim riječima kako je nastao.

11. Napravite fotografiju sebe (fotografijom na kojima je gps/mobitel, ruka ili noga NE ispunjavate zadatak i log će biti obrisan) ili papira s vašim nikom sa vrha Stage-a 2 (N 45° 13.625, E 014° 56.443)i Stage-a 6 (N 45° 13.044, E 014° 56.891), te ju stavite u svoj log.Svaki Nick mora imat svoju fotografiju sa obje navedene lokacije. Ako je fotografija sa samo jedne lokacije ili drugih lokacija log neće biti priznat i obrisat će se!

Uživajte u ovom predivnom mjestu s raznim predivnim kamenim formacijama i pogledima s vrhova !

Za proći ovaj EC potrebno je cca 10-12 sati, zato planirajte 2 dana (može se noćiti u Ratkovom skloništu), i to po suhom vremenu jer se treba penjat i provlačit po stijenama. Kako je ovo jedna od najzahtjevnijih planinarskih staza moje UPOZORENJE: IDETE NA VLASTITU ODGOVORNOST!!

Bijele and Samarske stijene are unique geomorphological phenomenon of karst and there are located in the central part of Velika Kapela in the Primorsko-goranska and Karlovac County. The nature play in true sense creating the most incredible and stunning stone forms, surpassing the details and the works of human hands. Velika Kapela where are located Bijele and Samarske stijene is not a unique mountain chain, but consists of a series of smaller and larger, sometimes lined, sometimes scattered ridges. This morphology was conditioned by the tectonic forces at the time of firing (oligomiocen) and the substrate made of limestone and dolomite, which create a specific relief - karst. 

WHAT IS KARST?

Karst is a group of landscape forms that are formed by dissolution (corrosion) of rocks soluble in water (carbonate rocks, gypsum, rock salt), ie. it is the whole spectrum of various landscape forms developed in carbonate formations, usually in calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium carbonate (MgCO3).

Considering their chemical composition, carbonate rocks are called limestone and dolostone, and their solubility in water allows formation of karst.

Therefore, karst is general term for group of morphological, hydrological and hydrogeological features of terrain that are built from rock soluble in water.

Chemical processes have the main role in karst landscape formation. Tectonics and mechanical processes also have their role in karst formation, but without chemical processes there would be no karst landscape. Karst landscape is a result of chemical weathering of rocks. The most important requirement for karstification process is solubility of carbonate rocks in water. Although those rocks seem hard and sturdy, the water dissolves them. That process of chemical weathering and corrosion is a slow process and it happens over the large periods of time.

Because of corrosion, there is a large number of cavities within karst. Porosity is one of the main characteristics of rocks in karst areas. It also results with numerous caves, pits and other formations.

The main characteristic of karst landscape is selective solubility of rocks in water that contain carbonic acid. This rock solubility is not instant process but it takes large amount of time. Permeability of rocks is not the same as in spongy materials, but cracks are formed with corrosion and rock can’t withhold water anymore.

The result of this process is rugged landscape with numerous hollows and hills. In general, landscape changes in carbonate rocks can be either on the surface or beneath the surface.

The main karst features on the surface are: karrens, sinkholes, kamenitzas, uvalas and poljas. The main underground karst features are caves, pits, ponors and caverns.

Limestone often can be found on the surface in the form of rock soil, and when limestone is covered with clay soil then different forms of vegetation can develop on karst. 

The three-dimensional nature of a karst landscape can be broken down into three parts: 1-exokarst, 2-epikarst, and 3-endokarst.

Exokarst describes all features found on the surface of the karst landscape, ranging from small-scale to large-scale features (e.g., from karren to sinksinkholes to poljes). Epikarst is the zone of solutionally enlarged openings or fractures that extends from the surface (the exokarst) down as much as 10–30 m below the surface to the underlying endokarst. The endokarst describes all deeper components of the underground karst landscape, including the smallest cavities, cave speleothems, cave sediments, and cave passages. The epikarst zone plays a critical role in the karst system, allowing water, air, and other materials (sediment, organic debris, and nutrients) to be readily transferred from the surface to the subsurface.

 KARST FEATURES/RELIEF

Karst features on the surface 

Karrens – grooves with sharp ridges, formed by water corrosion. Obvious results of carbonate rock dissolving are karrens. Karrens are grooves that are formed when rainwater and water from snow melting flow on stone surface. Karrens can also form under the surface.

Kamenitzas – shallow hollows formed by corrosion on flat limestone areas.
Water can dissolve carbonate rock while it stays on the rock as puddle. Leaves often decompose on such locations and it can increase the speed of corrosion. Kamenitzas are formed by this process – wide and shallow hollow in karstic rock.

Sinkholes/Ponikve – funnel-like depressions or holes.

Sinkholes are oval depressions with steep edges, formed by corrosive effect of plunging water in tectonically fragmented areas. The width and depth of sinkholes range from several meters to even hundred meters. They become narrower towards the bottom.

Karst poljas

Poljas are the largest karst features. They are usually closed depressions inside karst area that can be long even several kilometers. They are formed by merging of faults and by side corrosion of water that flow from impermeable to permeable zones and disappears into sinks. Longer axis of polja usually is parallel to the direction of main tectonic units. Poljas are characterized by faults, plateaus, Quaternary and/or Neogene sediments into which underground rivers disappears. The quantity of biogenic material in soil can increase the speed of side corrosion. When more resistant parts remain in the form of conical hills, the so-called cone karst is formed.

There are three different types of polja: border, structural and baselevel. 

Underground karst features 

Pits - Underground hollow places that are developed in vertical direction (45°- 90°)

Pits have direct contact with the surface with their opening. The angle of their extension towards underground is larger than 45°. As vertical channels they descend deeply into rock massif, and they represent contact system through which water penetrates into karst underground. 

Caves – underground hollow places with horizontal direction (up to 45°), they are rich with cave formations.

Caves also have direct contact with the surface with their opening, but they extend horizontally into underground (less than 45°). They form when water circulate bellow level of groundwater.

Caves are characterized by different types of deposits, the most popular of them are dripstones. Dripstones are important for their role in researches of climate changes in geological history. Dripstones are formed by process that is opposite to melting, ie. by precipitation.

Caverns – closed hollow places in the karst underground.

Caverns are underground karst formations that don’t have contact with the surface, and they also can be of very large dimensions. There are more than 850 registered caverns in Croatia (2006).

WEATHERING

There are two types of exogenous processes: weathering and erosion.

Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, roughly translated to: "with no movement", and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.

There are three different types of weathering: physical, chemical and biological weathering.

Physical weathering

Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without chemical change. The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which clasts and other particles are reduced in size). However, chemical and physical weathering often go hand in hand. Physical weathering can occur due to temperature, pressure, frost etc.

Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks. Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important. Chemical weathering is enhanced by such geological agents as the presence of water and oxygen.

Biological weathering

A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic compounds, i.e. the effect of moss growing on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral weathering can also be initiated and/or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are thought to increase chemical weathering rates.

An interesting phenomenon is the differential weathering. It is any form of weathering of rocks in which there is difference in the rate of weathering. Difference in rates of weathering occurs because of differences in composition and resistance of rocks that are exposed to weathering. Less resistant parts of rocks are weathered more and faster and more resistant parts are weathered less and slower.

After rocks are weakened by weathering, erosion starts to take its role. Erosion is the process that transports rocks and sediments from one place to another. Erosion can be caused by ice, water, wind, gravity.

NATURAL ARCH OR BRIDGE

A natural arch, natural bridge or, less commonly, a rock arch is a natural rock formation where a rock arch forms, with an opening underneath. Most natural arches form as a narrow bridge, walled by cliffs, become narrower from erosion, with a softer rock stratum under the cliff-forming stratum gradually eroding out until the rock shelters thus formed meet underneath the ridge, thus forming the arch. Natural arches commonly form where cliffs are subject to erosion from the sea, rivers or weathering (subaerial processes); the processes "find" weaknesses in rocks and work on them, making them larger until they break through.

The choice between bridge and arch is somewhat arbitrary. The Natural Arch and Bridge Society identifies a bridge as a subtype of arch that is primarily water-formed. By contrast, the Dictionary of Geological Terms defines a natural bridge as a "natural arch that spans a valley of erosion."

The erosion forms can occur in all rock types. They are short-lived in directly erodible rocks or in environments with high erosion energy, such as the surf zone on cliffs. Permanent large shapes more often form in sandstone and limestone, as this resistive rocks are susceptible to solution by water and weathering.

Natural Arch formed only under special conditions. Every single process relevant to natural arch formation involves the action of water, gravity, temperature variation, or tectonic pressure on rock. Wind is not a significant agent in natural arch formation. Wind does act to disperse the loose grains that result from microscopic erosion. Further, sandstorms can scour or polish already existing arches.

Natural arch can be formed:

1. By erosion

2. Disintegration of rock blocks and subsequent lean on each other

3. By mechanical erosion (Water cours):

In order to log this EarthCache I will ask you several questions (since this is D5 you need to answere questions from all stages and they should be as accurate as possible or the log will not be recognized) and you should send your answers to my e-mail. You don’t have to wait for my confirmation, feel free to log the find as son as you send your answers. If there are problems with your answers, I will contact you.

1. Stage 1 - What do you see in front of you? Explain how it occurred?

2. Stage 2 - You must climb on the top of Stepenica peak and find one of karst features - what is it? Explain in own words how it is occurrate! What size is it?

3. Stage 3 - When you come to the location, look at the rock on the left side and observe the rock surface explain what do you think what type of exogenous processes is it? Describe the structure and color.

4. Stage 4 - Describe what you see on the location, do you see the bottom and what do you think what of the karst landscape is it - exokarst, epikarst or endokarst?

5. Stage 5 - The path leads you here around which karst feature? what do you think what of the karst landscape is it? Why?

6. Stage 6 -Observe the location and what kind of karst feature you see? Estimate how height there are, and where you can stil see it? Explain in your own words how they occurrate.

7. Stage 7 – On this location you will see something unusual on the "floor", what is it? Explain how do you think it occurs and what karst landscape is it - exokarst, epikarst or endokarst? Like what karst feature on what stage?

8. Stage 8 - Observe the location - describe what you see in front of yourself? Estimate the size? Which karst landscape is it - exokarst, epikarst or endokarst? What you see in the middle of it?

9. Stage 9 - On the east side you will see a karst feature which is it? Does it belong to exokarst, epikarst or endokarst? Why?

10. Stage 10 - What do you pass under at this location? Explain with your own words how it occurs.

11. Take a photo of yourself (photo showing a GPS/mobile phone, hand or leg do NOT fulfill the task and the log will be deleted) or paper with your nickname from the top of Stage 2 (N 45 ° 13.625, E 014 ° 56.443) and from Stage 6 (N 45 ° 13.044, E 014 ° 56.891), and put them in your log. Each Nick must have their own photo from both listed locations as proof that they were actually at the location. If the photo is from only one location or other locations the log will not be approve and will be deleted!

Enjoy in this beautiful place with a variety of beautiful rock formations and views from the peaks!

To pass this EC you will take about 10-12 hours, so plan for it 2 days (you can spent the night in Ratko's shelter), go when the weather is dry not on rainy days because it needs to climbe the rocks on on dangerous places. This is one of the moste challenging hiking trails so my WARNING: YOU GO ON YOUR OWN RISK!!

Izvor:
mr.sc. Marijan Biruš: Krš za neznalice
Marija Klanfar: Podzemni krški oblici
northpennines.org.uk
fer.unizg.hr
Bukal Nikolina: Završni diplomski rad
hr.wikipedia.org
Alecia M. Spooner, Geology for Dummies, Hoboken: Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2011.
denissinger.wordpress.com
naturalarches.org
Tim Stokes, Paul Griffiths, Carol Ramsey, "Karst Geomorphology, Hydrology, and Management", Compendium of Forest Hydrology and Geomorphology in British Columbia, pp. 373-400, 2010.
uky.edu

Veliko HVALA GCEdo na suradnji, pomoći, podršći i savjetima!

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